https://duckduckgo.com/?q=stilllife+with+lemons+organs+and+a+pomegranate&ia=images&iax=images&iai=https%3A%2F%2Fobrazarna.cz%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fpictures%2F3AA2723.JPG
By
Honorable Lady Sosha Lyon’s O’Rourke
Contents
History of Subtleties………………………………………….. Pg. 3
Ingredients ……………………………………………………….. Pg. 5-6
Creating a display ……………………………………………… Pg. 7-8
Subtleties: The Making of Food Art………………….….. Pg. 9-12
Recipes ……………………………………………………………… Pg. 13-15
Food Coloring ……………………………………………………. Pg. 16-17
Conclusion ………………………………………………………… Pg. 18
Works Cited………………………………………………………. Pg. 19-20
Subtlety – A short overview of food as Art:
What is a Subtlety? For me, this is creating a period dish or set of dishes to resemble something else. In this instance, I am showing fruit as a subtlety playing on the rarity of Lemons and while regaling the senses with rare spices and the conspicuous consumption of sugar.
A subtlety should be, per Hunter, an intermission within a meal between courses that entertains while heavily disguising the origins of the main ingredients. Fooling, or tricking the eye into seeing the unusual and mythical, while using every day food items in unique ways, that promoted thought and goodwill towards the host. Per Martins:
Hunter notes the coinciding of the change of venue for the banquet course (to another room) to promote conversation in the fifteenth century with the publication in the vernacular of Platos Symposium (defined as a meeting to exchange ideas after a meal… The qualities of wit and wisdom associated with the literary…appear to metamorphose sotil into the more modern sense of subtle through association with the sweetmeat course (Hunter 1986:38,39). Witty conversation was to work with the sweetmeats or confectionery subtleties to help the diner digest physically and mentally. Once the effects of wonder wear off, the need for quick wit, humor and subtle sayings represent the transfer of ingenuity from the chef to the guests. The subtlety is creative and prompts creativity; if the chef can make it, the guest should be able to comment on it. Unlike with many other performance genres, the subtlety relies on ingenuity from both the audience and the director in order to be successful. It also depends on a unique form of ingenuity: playing with nature. (Martins)
There were early notations of subtleties occurring, from the book Satyricon, by Petronius, who wrote that at a Roman feast dinner included a rabbit that had been made to look like the mythological winged horse Pegasus. Another earlier example, written by an Egyptian caliph in the eleventh century describes from one Islamic feast day a hundred and fifty-seven figures and seven table sized palaces made of sugar. (Martins).
Another example: Philip the Fair, at the Feast of the Pheasant, showcased a giant Saracen entering the feasting hall leading an elephant (there is a question about the edibility of said pachyderm), with a knight (Oliver de La Marche) playing the role of the captive Eastern church. (Wheaton, pg. 8/Martins). Another example: Henry VIII. George Cavendish wrote about a feast sponsored by the great Tudor king in such waxing enthusiasm for the feast “…I do both lack wit in my gross old head and cunning in my bowels to declare the wondrous and curious imaginations in the same invented and devised.” (Henisch, pp. 236/Martins) The feasting was a display to move men and women into wondrous thoughts, glossing over the harsh reality of court life or a grand and compelling gesture.
“Such subtle creations could be comprised of just the edible, or as the more elaborate a set up became, a combination of paper mache and lumber to support a larger and even grander display. These decorative subtleties were for powerful displays and less about eating, with the production being undertaken by carpenters, metals smiths and painters and very little with chefs.” (www.reference.com/browse/subtlety)
A subtlety could be simple items. A redressed peacock on proud display or stuffed fowl riding roast piglets; or as elaborate as a full pastry castle with trees containing candied fruit, glazed and stuffed mythical beasts, and musicians. Allegorical scenes were not uncommon, with themes like “Castle of Love” or “Lady of the Unicorn”.
These second types of decorative subtleties where there was little to be eaten but a display of wealth was shown in excess. “Such subtle creations could be comprised of just the edible, or as the more elaborate a set up became, a combination of paper mache and lumber to support a larger and even grander display. These decorative subtleties were for powerful displays and less about eating, with the production being undertaken by carpenters, metals smiths and painters and very little with chefs.” (www.reference.com/browse/subtlety
Ingredients:
Almond meal – Blanched ground almonds. Almonds originated in southwestern Asia as an edible seed and pressed into oil, eaten raw or ground into a flour type consistency. This versatile seed is used as a drink, a flour base for desserts or sugar coated. The almond is grown in Asia, US, Marcona, Spain and Greece. (https://www.britannica.com/plant/almond)
Cardamom – Comes in two varieties. Green, E. caramomum or the dried black ripe seeds. One of the world’s most expensive spices after saffron and vanilla. Used for foods and pharmaceuticals worldwide. (Preedy, Pp 295-301)
Cinnamon – Indigenous to the island of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and successfully replanted to grow in Northern India, East Java and the Indian Ocean islands of Seychelles. The word Cinnamon started from the Greek word for spices with the prefix Chinese. This spice traveled over various routes passing through the hands of Phoenicians and Arabs on its lengthy journey to become a dominant spice in the spice trade wars. (Czarra, pp. 10-12)
Cloves – Native to Moluccas in Indonesia, while successfully growing in Madagascar, Zanzibar and Pemba. Harvested by hand when the clover flower buds turn pink at their base. (Czarra, Pp 12-13)
Dates – Originating in the Near East and North Africa, a short distance from Rome, making them easily transported. Aristotle compared the dates to daktylos (fingers) giving them their name. High and sugar, eaten fresh or dried, sometimes ground into a meal or made into a syrup. (Toussant-Sumat, pp. 675-676)
Ginger – Zingiber Officnale, a meter tall tropical plant with large leaves with spikes studded with yellow and red rimmed flowers. The rhizome is used for food, flavoring and medicinal. The rhizome can be used fresh, dried, grated, ground, preserved in syrup/vinegar and crystalized. (Toussant-Samat, p. 496)
Nutmeg – Native to the Banda Islands of Indonesia, nutmeg is the actual kernel of the fruit. Nutmeg can be stored for a long time in airtight containers. The outer fruit/lace of the nutmeg fruit is called mace. (Czarre, pp. 16)
Black Pepper – Piper Nigun. A tropical vine that can grow up to 18 feet with large thick leaves and small white flowers grown on spikes. Pepper has been known as Peperi Greek, piper Latin, pep, Italian, Pfeffer German, poivre French. Originally exported from the Indian subcontinent. Toussant-Samat, pp. 490-491)
Powdered sugar – Finely ground Sugar.
Rosewater – Scappi mentions rose water as a matter of course for dishes. (Scappi, pp. 42) I have made rosewater before, and it was the most astringent tasting thing I have ever put in my mouth. Lovely color but useless for food in my opinion. I went with store-bought for edibility.
Sugar – I used organic sugar. Compared to the normal cane sugar, the difference is pretty startling. Organic sugar has just enough molasses to make the sugar seem tinged with gold. Compared to actual dark brown sugar, with heavy molasses it seems almost pure white.
Saccharum officinarum “…considered a spice even rarer and more expensive than any other…pharmaceutical use…gives its species name of officinarum.” Considered very expensive till the late 1500. Loaf sugar given the name due to the conical shape derived from refining into a hard and very white refined form. Caffetin or Couffin (English equivalent of “coffer” or “coffin”) named for the form, packed in plaited leaves palm and from the city shipped from called Caffa in the Crimea. Casson a very fragile sugar also considered the ancestor to Castor sugar. Muscarrat considered the best of all sugars, reported to be made in Egypt for the Sultan of Babylon. The Italian name mucchera denotes that it had been refined twice. (Toussaint-Samat, pg. 553-555)
Creating a display:
Creating a display seemed to rely heavily on allegorical content from myth, fantasy or biblical content, such as the Pegasus from myth at the Roman table (Scully, pp. 107) or Lady of the Unicorn. The thought process that goes behind making a display was how each animal was viewed in allegorical terms.
“…the horns of an antelope might get caught in a bush in the same way humans might get caught in a life of sin. The nightingale represented love, the elephant implied chastity, the ape, lewdness and lust and the peacock, the purity of someone who never turns to sin.” (Martins).
The main display item, according to these views should play upon the strength of the subjects or as humorous jokes on the subject matter presented.
I chose citrus as a way to display a scarcity rescourse, imported by the rich for display’s of wealth.
There are several potraits of the rich with subtel depictions of their wealth with the inclusion of citrus in paintings. The picture below, while not Tudorian, is from 1434 showing a wealthy couple’s marriage and a the subtle inclusion of citrus.
This is the Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife. Here we see oranges in the windowsill and on the side table.
Henry Courtenay, Earl of Devaon, is reported to have given a rare and expensive gift of oranges to Henry VIII, secured from an exporter in Exeter who shipped from Iberia. (https://sites.exeter.ac.uk/medievalstudies/2020/01/05/new-years-gifts/) Per Hampton Court, records for dining included citrus and almonds from the Mediterranean areas with imports from Cyprus (sugar) and spices from the Indies. (https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/tudor-food-and-eating/#gs.4c4dud).
We also show:
“…new fruits from southern Europe were introduced into the gardens of the wealthy. These included quinces, apricots, raspberries, red and black currents, melon and even pomegranates, oranges and lemons. The last…citrus fruits continued to be imported from Portugal, the bitter Seville type of orange now being imported by improved sweet oranges carried from Ceylon into Europe by the Portugues.” (https://queryblog.tudorhistory.org/2010/04/question-from-jacob-oranges-in-tudor.html?m=1)
With the understanding that lemons and organs were considered a delicacy, along with sugar, almonds, dates and spices. We move onto the making of a Subtlety.
Subtleties: The Making of Food Art
The pictures below are the steps taken to make the final outcome of my entry.
Almonds from Jordan, coated in sugar from Cyprus and flavored with spices from the Indies, to form sugared almonds. We start with coating almonds with a sweet 1:1 ratio of sugar and water. Then bring gently to boil. After every boil. We turn off the stove and allow the mixture and almonds to cool.
After a few, many heating and cooling episodes, the sugar crystalizes onto the almonds forming an amazing flavor.
In period, the almonds would have been added to a large cylendrical and suspended pot, to which a teaspoon of the sugar water mixture would be added. This would form a slight coating over each almond at a time. Taste of History by Max Miller did an amazing job of showing how this was technically done. He also pointed out that it was several hours of hard work to get just a few nuts covered and several batches destroyed from burning. We are attemtping flavor not looks for the enterior of this subtelty.
Once the almonds have been candied, take a medjool date and remove the seed and cap. Stuff two or three almonds inside.
Next we make period ginger bread with imported expensive spices from the spice islands and the Middle East.
Period ginger bread has a variety of recipes, much like everyone’s favorite Italian grandmother’s one true lasagna recipe. There can be more than one. Here I take spices, add them to plain bread crumbs. The bread crumbs would be saved from all the bread sliced on the cutting board for just such a dish and tossed into simmering honey. Nothing is wasted.
The almond stuffed dates are then wrapped in the still hot spiced bread crumb mixture to form the shape of the faux fruit to be.
Please note the second mistake for today’s recipe, the very white marzipan. Marzipan is supposed to be made with powdered sugar, ground almonds (almond flour), one egg white and a touch of rose water. Here in this picture, marzipan is made without ground almond flour. It has amazing stiffness but is incredibly fragile to work with and hardens in seconds. The taste is like an overly sweet rose sugar. I did not like the taste after the first round of wrapping was completed. Instead of breaking the sugar shells open to rescue the gingerbread inside, I made a second batch so everyone would be able to taste why no almond flour to marzipan is a really bad idea.
Almond flour gives the sugar an elasticity and subtle flavor that is needed. Drying time is a little slower however this outweighs with better flavor and elasticity needed to cover gingerbread and to make really cute leaves that aren’t going to break if you breathe on them.
The marzipan forms are then painted with coloring that reflects the represented citrus. Now I could have used period ingredients for the paints. Saffron, cochineal and spinach water. 2 out of 3 of these ingredients were NOT cost effective (saffron and cochineal), and two I wouldn’t put on a sweet (cochineal and spinach). One, I just won’t eat because I can’t guarantee that the cochineal is food grade or food safe. Cochineal is the ground up shells of a beetle imported from Mexico that make a really lovely red dye. If I won’t eat this, then I won’t ask others to eat it either. I used modern day food dyes with vodka to help the cohesion and watering down of said food dyes.
The mistakes made for this subtlety: Marzipan without almond flour and I forgot to stuff the candied almonds into the luxury item of dates. While the just sugar marzipan was tasty, it was hard to work with and hardened in minutes instead of hours.
Candied almonds not placed inside of a date, when wrapped with the gingerbread, felt more like marbles rolling around while forming the gingerbread instead of a solid item that was being gently wrapped in gingerbread then marzipan. It was very disconcerting to feel!
Recipes:
Marzipan:
Original Recipe:
And if you will make any images of any other thing in sugar that is cat in molds make them in the same maner that the plate is and pour it into the molds in the same manner that the plate is poured, but let your mold be anointed before with a little almond oil. (Heiatt, pp. 142)
Ingredients:
1 C ground almonds 2 C powdered sugar 1 egg white
2 tsp Rosewater
Redaction:
Marzipan is an almond thick paste that can be formed into flowers, trees, birds etc. In period the marzipan would be colored with saffron, cinnamon etc. to produce colors that would sometimes over ride the flavor of the candy.
I will note that my original ground almonds could have been ground more finely, and my powdered sugar was bought instead of taking regular table sugar and grinding finer in a mortar and pestle. I have since upgraded to peeled ground almond meal and the powdered sugar is still bought. I don’t use vanilla as the modern recipes will suggest but I do use the period rosewater instead.
Gingerbread
Original Recipe:
First Recipe:
Take a quart of honey & seethe it, skim it clean; take saffron, powdered pepper, * throw thereon; take grated bread, make it so stiff that it will be cut; then take powdered cinnamon, & strew thereon enough; then make it square, like as thou would cut it; take when thou cut it, and caste box leaves above, stuck thereon, and cloves. And if thou will have it red color it with sandalwood enough. (Renfrow, pp. 230)
Second Recipe:
Take a quart of honey clarified, and seethe it till it be brown, and if it be thick put to it a sih of water: then take fine crumbs of white bread grated, and put to it, and stir it well, and when it is almost cold, put to it the powder of ginger, cloves, cinnamon, and a little liquorice and aniseeds; then knead it, and put it into moulds and print it: some use to put to it also a little pepper, but that is according unto taste and pleasure. (Markahm, pp. 120)
Ingredients:
1 C honey 2 C breadcrumbs (white bread preferred)
1/8 tsp ground black pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cloves
whole cloves and cinnamon powder for display
Redaction:
I actually played around with the flavor a little bit and added a few more spices. 1/8 cinnamon, cardamon, ginger and nutmeg. (I’m a spicy type of cook you know!)
If you will notice the breadcrumbs are from a whole wheat bread I had. In period if this dish were to be served to nobility or royalty, the probability that the bread was made from good white flour without a lot of whole wheat is much higher than a whole wheat or grain-based bread. I would suggest a good bread made from white flour, water, either ale or water, and yeast can actually be the must from the bottom of the ale barrel or ale yeast if you wanted a more purist type of bread. (That will be in another post later.)
Place the honey in a pot and boil. Skim the foam as it appears, add the pepper and the saffron and stir in the breadcrumbs. After the breadcrumbs were added…in went the spices. Continue stirring until the mixture starts to stiffen up. Place mixture in a mold or use your hands to form the desired shape.
Dragee and Spices in Confit – Candied Fruit
Original Recipe:
This recipe has been condensed by the authors as being extremely long and convoluted. Here is their shortened version.
To clarifie suger, and to mak anneys in counfite, which directs us to make caraway, coriander, fennel and ginger into confit the same way…
1 cup sugar ½ cup water 6 oz anise seeds
Combine sugar and water in a heavy pan for 5 minutes, add seeds and stir until the syrup begins to look white; set aside for 10 minutes. Then put back over low heat, preferably over a protective mat or heat diffuser, and stir until the sugar coating softens enough to be poured. Pour onto a cookie sheet or a piece of clean screening over a cake rack. Spread the seeds out with a paring knife separate them as much as possible as they harden…
(Hieatt, 135)
Ingredients:
1 C sugar ½ C water 2 C almonds
Redaction:
I did this with almonds so as to stuff dates for the center of a marzipan/gingerbread subtlety.
Food Coloring – Period but not always edible:
Cinnamon – Produces a lovely red coloring, though this does imparts a strong cinnamon flavor to the marzipan.
Cochineal – Spanish Conquistadors conquering Mexico discovered that the Mesoamericans had found the perfect red dye coloring. Dye comes from of a small bug found on cacti. 50,000 to 70,000 bugs are needed per pound of dye. The dye is produced when pouring boiling water over the dead bugs. (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/bug-had-world-seeing-red-180961590/) This produces a strong red coloring. In other words, bug juice. I draw the line at knowingly eating this. Because I won’t eat this, I won’t put this in my edible artwork. Replaced with edible paint and cinnamon.
Lapis Lazuli – A mineral used as an expensive pigment in period paintings such as Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian. Considered expensive and used only by accomplished painters with rich patrons. (https://geology.com/gemstones/lapis-lazuli/) Produces lovely blue coloring. Not food grade. Because I could not verify if this was cut with something toxic I replaced the dye with blue edible paint.
Lead – Lead White used for paintings along with gypsum and chalk.(http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/artist-paints/renaissance-colour-palette.htm) Seen in “Miracle of the Slave”, 1548 by Tintoretto. Produces a fine white coloring. Toxic to poisonous. Replaced with white edible paint.
Malachite – A green mineral, found as early as 618 AD for paintings. (https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/8/5/201/htm). Seen in “Garden of Earthly Delights”, 1504 by Hieronymus Bosch. Produces an amazing green coloration. Not food grade. Because I could not verify if this was cut with something toxic I replaced the dye with spinach juice.
Parsley – Native to the mediterranean from the Apiaceaa family. Attempted use as a green coloring agent. Failure on dying sugar art green but makes a lovely, if interesting, sugar art display. (https://www.britannica.com/plant/parsley)
Pearl – Natural formed when a grain of sand (or other irritant) invades an oyster soft interior. The oyster coats the irritant with fluid called nacre. Many coats are used to smooth out the rough edges. (https://pearls.com/pages/how-pearls-are-formed) Used as early as Roman times for heart disease by grinding pearls. For black bile, ground pearls were mixed with musk. (King, pp. 314). Produces lovely pearlescent shimmer. Attempted to hand grind pearls in my pestle. This did not go well. Could not get a consistent sand like quality. Rough and gritty. Replaced with edible paint to replace gritty chunks.
Saffron – The usable part of the saffron plant are the three stamen. The saffron is part of the Iridaceae family, growing wild from Italy to Kurdistan. Produces a lovely red color and very expensive due to the quantity needed for dying. (ToussaInt-Samat, pp. 518)
Snapdragons – A flowering plant native to the Mediterranean and North America from the Pantaginacea family. Attempted use as a red dye for sugar art. A failure for coloring. (https://www.britannica.com/plant/snapdragon)
Spinach Juice – Spinach is chopped then boiled. The water reserved for coloring of sugar and painting onto pastry crust.
Note on Subtlety:
A subtlety could be made of just the edible, such as a re-skinned peacock, or as a combination of paper mâché and lumber to accent the food in the display. These decorative subtleties were for powerful displays and less about eating, with the production being done by carpenters, metal smiths and painters and very little with chefs. Horace Warpole describes a banquet given in honor of the birth of Duke of Burgundy, where the centerpiece was of wax figures moved by clock work at the end of the feast to represent the labor of the Dauphiness and the happy birth of the heir to the monarchy. (Martins/Craig, pp. 17)
Paint brushes:
Per Cennini, paint brushes should be made from the middle hairs of cooked vair tails, trimmed then tied with thread or waxed silk thread before tucking them into a feather shaft. After this is complete find a twig/wooden handle to fit into the other end of the feather shaft. His preference for feather shafts was vulture, goose, chicken hen or dove. (https://www.medievalists.net/2016/08/how-to-make-medieval-artists-tools/) I went with store bought brushes as I am fresh out of vair tails, cat hairs, squirrel hairs and the dog hair available is to curly.
Conclusion:
I love making candied almonds. Fun, sweet and amazing to the tongue. Gingerbread in the period style is ok. It is a pain in the butt to work with when it is still warm, but if you don’t’ work the gingerbread while warm, the mixture will freeze in the pan.
The marzipan was a dream to work with, but there were issues with the coloring of the fruit and leaves.
The marzipan was painted with food grade coloring. I wanted to attempt to paint the “fruit” and “leaves” however there were a few issues with using period paints. Some weren’t food grade, and some aren’t something I’d willingly put in my mouth. Spinach, that was grown in my garden, died.
After working with the paints, I concluded that I should have used finely grated lemon peel and just a drop of yellow food coloring mixed in with the “Lemon” marzipans instead of painting. The “orange” marzipan should have been mixed with grated orange peels and maybe a hint of cinnamon.
References:
Craig, E., (1953). English Royal Cookbook, Favorite Court Recipes. Hippocrene books.
Czarra, Fred. Spices, A Global History. (2009). Reaktion Books Ltd.
David, Elizabeth. English Bread and Yeast Cookery. (1977). Grub Street Cookery
Hansen, Marianne. And Thus You Have a Lordly Dish: Fancy and Showpiece Cookery in an Augsberg Patrician Kitchen. Medieval Food and Drink. (1995). St. University of NY Press.
Henisch, Bridget Ann. Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society. (1976). Pennsylvania State University Press.
Hunter, Lynette. Sweet Secrets from Occasional Receipts to Specialized: The Growth of a Genre; as cited in Banquetting Stuffe. (1986) Edited by C. Anne Wilson. Edinburgh University Press.
Hieatt, Constance, Hosington, Brenda, Butler, Sharon. Pleyn Delit: Medieval Cookery for Modern Cooks. (1979) University of Toronto Press.
Martins, P. (1998). Subtleties, Power and Consumption: A Study of French and English cuisine from 1300-1500). Nyu.edu
Renfrow, C., (1998). Take a Thousand Eggs, A collection of 15th century recipes. 2nd edition.
Rodinson, Maxime., Arberry, A.J. Medieval Arab Cookery. (2001) Prospect Books.
Scappi, Bartolomeo. The Opera of Bartolomeo Scappi. (1570). (2008). Translated by Scully, Terence. University of Toronto Press.
Scully, Terrence. The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages. (1995). The Boydell Press, Woodbridge.
Tirel, Guillaume. The Viandier of Taillevent: and edition of all extant manuscripts. (1988). Translated by
Scully, Terence. University of Ottawa Press.
Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. A History of Food. (2009). Blackwell Publishing, LTD.
Wheaton, Barbara. Savoring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789. (1996). Simon & Schuster Inc.
Portraits
Image 1:
https://duckduckgo.com/?q=stilllife+with+lemons+organs+and+a+pomegranate&ia=images&iax=images&iai=https%3A%2F%2Fobrazarna.cz%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fpictures%2F3AA2723.JPG
https://ag.umass.edu/sites/ag.umass.edu/files/fact-sheets/pdf/currants.pdf
https://www.americanbuttercupclub.org/about-the-breed.html
https://www.britannica.com/plant/almond
https://geology.com/gemstones/lapis-lazuli
https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/tudor-food-and-eating/#gs.4fjl4e
https://blog.kathrynmcgowan.com/tag/hampton-court-palace-tudor-kitchens
https://queryblog.tudorhistory.org/2010/04/question-from-jacob-oranges-in-tudor.html?m=1
http://www.medievalcookery.com/
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wedd/hd_wedd.htm
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/8/5/201/htm
https://pearls.com/pages/how-pearls-are-formed
http://www.reference.com/browse/subtlety/Patrick Martins/nyu
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/bug-had-world-seeing-red-180961590
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/artist-paints/renaissance-colour-palette.htm
Anwar, Farooq; Abbas, Ali; Alkharfy, Khalid M. and Gilani, Anwar-ul-Hassan (2015). “Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) Oils”. In Victor R. Preedy, (Ed.) Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety Archived 30 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Amsterdam: Academic Press. Chapter 33. pp. 295–301
https://www.tastinghistory.com/episodes
Personal pictures for steps in making subtleties
